Definitions and glossary of terms

For an intinial understading of the term spatial ability, you are encouraged to read this article.

Several concepts are related to spatial thinking, such as spatial sense, spatial literacy, spatial abilities, spatial knowledge and spatial perception. Let us start with some definitions:

Spatial sense can be defined as an intuition about shapes and the relationships among shapes. Individuals with spatial sense have a feel for the geometric aspects of their surroundings and the shapes formed by objects in the environment (van de Walle, 2003).

Space perception is defined as the perception of the properties and relationships of objects in space especially with respect to direction, size, distance, and orientation (Merriam – Webster Dictionary, 2014).

Spatial ability, according to the Johns Hopkins University Center for Talented Youth (2013) is the ability to:

• understand and remember the spatial relationships among objects
• manipulate images in space
• visualize how separate parts of complex physical systems interrelate

Furthermore, spatial abilities include the following (Golledge, 1992):

• thinking geometrically;
• imaging complex spatial relations at various scales, from national urban systems to interior room designs or tabletop layouts;
• recognizing spatial patterns in distributions of functions, places and interactions at a variety of different scales;
• interpreting macro-spatial relations such as star patterns;
• giving and comprehending directional and distance estimates as required by navigation, or the path integration and short-cutting procedures used in way finding;
• understanding network structures used in planning, design and engineering; and
• identifying key characteristics of location and association of phenomena in space.

Spatial thinking uses the properties of space as a means of solving problems, finding answers and expressing solutions (National Research Council, 2006). According to the NRC, therefore, spatial thinking uses space for structuring problems, seeking answers, and formulating possible solutions associated with space in science, in the workplace and in everyday life. It also includes the ability to review and analyse space, which are essential to the “mental toolbox” of an educated citizen for spatial management and decision making.

Spatial thinking is multifaceted in its operation; according to Booth & Thomas (2000) it includes cognitive skills related to map reading and making, processes involving representation, scale, transformation, production and recall of symbolic (non-verbal) information recognition and understanding of spatial projections, coordinate systems, synthesis of geometric configurations, formulation of verbal instructions and on the other hand, navigation and orientation based on observation and instruments handling.

Spatial thinking is structured through eight basic concepts: hierarchy, comparison, transition, analogy, aura, succession, regions, and connection (Intraub, 2004) and (Gersmehl & Gersmehl, 2007).

• Hierarchy relates to the classification of the entities based on their size and may also appear in the form of nested hierarchy. An example of hierarchy is the different areas of a city (commercial zone, industrial zone, and residential zone) while the levels of education are examples of nested hierarchy.
• Comparison is made between sites already known with new locations. The process of comparison is a structural process that leads to understanding. It ultimately helps the person to categorize concepts and then recall information or to construct new concepts based on the old ones.
• Transition is a concept that expresses change (movement, slope, density).
• Analogy refers to sites located in similar places on Earth and therefore they are likely to have similar characteristics.
• Aura grows around a geographical entity and is in line with this. The understanding of the aura of each entity is crucial for the interpretation of space and human activities in decision making.
• Succession is the identification of features or conditions in an area. Humans are able to recognize spatial patterns that are not characterized by randomness, but constructed with very specific structure.
• Region is an area defined according to certain criteria. Regions have dynamic dimension in space and time and are management units for the study and development of different environments. For example, cities and states are defined by political criteria, climate and vegetation regions by physical criteria and developed and developing countries by economic criteria.
• Connection refers to the dependency relationships that exist between humans and the environment.

Finally, the distinction between knowledge of space and knowledge about spaces made by Eliot in trying to define what is spatial knowledge is significant – he suggests that knowledge of space is phenomenal, knowledge about spaces is intellectual (Eliot, 2000). Piaget also argues that interaction in space, not perception of space is a fundamental building block for the acquisition of spatial knowledge in (Golledge & Stimson, 1997, p. 191).

Bibliography

Booth, R., & Thomas, M. (. (2000). Visualization in mathematics learning: Arithmetic problem-solving and student difficulties. Journal of mathematical behavior, 18(2), 169-190.

Eliot, J. (2000). The nature and measurement of spatial intelligence. College Park, MD: Institute for Child Study, College of Education, University of Maryland.

Gersmehl, P., & Gersmehl, C. (2007). Spatial thinking by young children: Neurologic evidence for early development and educability. Journal of Geography, 106, 181-191.

Golledge, R. G. (1992). Do People Understand Spatial Concepts: The Case of First-Order Primitives. Proceedings of the International Conference GIS – From Space to Territory: Theories and Methods of Spatio-Temporal Reasoning in Geographic Space (pp. 1-21). Springer-Verlag.

Golledge, R. G., & Stimson, R. J. (1997). Spatial Behavior: A Geographic Perspective. New York: The Guilford Press.

Intraub, H. (2004). Anticipatory spatial representation of 3D regions explored by sighted observers and a deaf-and blind observer. Cognition, 94(1), 19-37.

National Research Council. (2006). Learning to Think Spatially: GIS as a Support System in the K-12 Curriculum. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.

The Johns Hopkins University Center for Talented Youth. (2013). What is spatial ability? Retrieved from http://web.jhu.edu/cty/STBguide.pdf

van de Walle, J. A. (2003). Geometric Thinking and Geometric Concepts. In J. A. van de Walle, Elementary and Middle School Mathematics: Teaching Developmentally (5th ed., pp. 407-453). Boston: Pearson.